Exogenous shocks such as climate hazards impact men and women differently due to various socio-cultural and economic conditions depending on regions. World Bank estimates suggest that there are 122 women for every 100 men in the age group of 25-34 years dwelling below international poverty line. By 2030, climate change is projected to trap about 68-132 million of world population into poverty. Such figures are likely to inflate as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is estimated to impoverish 150 million people by the end of 2021.
In developing countries, women carry out climate-sensitive duties, e.g., producing food, collecting water. Studies highlight that poor women and children are 14 times more likely to be killed than men by extreme climate events such as flash floods, cyclones, cloudbursts. Furthermore, women who are displaced due to climate extremes often have limited accessibility to relief resources. This, in turn, raises their propensity to face gender-based violence. Most of the early warning systems for extreme weather events and other forms of emergencies are designed and implemented by men, thus perspectives of female population are largely unheard in affected regions.
Table-1 depicts that 90% of world’s top ten most affected countries by climate extremes belong to developing world in 2019. More than 41% loss in human development in each of these countries is due to gender inequality except Bahamas, Bolivia and Japan. For example, Mozambique faces 52.3% loss in its human development due to gender inequality.
Table-1. Author’s own compilation from Global Climate Risk 2021report and UNDP website on Gender Inequality Index 2019.
Table-2. Author’s own compilation from Global Climate Risk 2021 report and UNDP website on GII 2019.
Table-2 shows that world’s top ten countries facing highest climate risk during 2000-2019 are less developed countries. Gender Inequality Index (GII) scores indicate that each of these countries witness loss in human development by more than 42% solely due to gender inequality, except the Bahamas and Thailand. Though there is no direct data available for Puerto Rico, gender-based violence, early pregnancies and high gender pay gaps are common in this country.
Why women are more vulnerable in climate hotspots
Existence of high gender inequality in climate hotspot regions is not a mere coincidence. Most of these hotspots are dominated by patriarchal societies. Climate shocks act as catalyst for gender inequality in these regions.
Triple Burden of Female heads
According to many researchers (e.g., Muttarak (2016), Flatø et al. (2017)), climate adversities intensify destitution of female headed households due to the “Triple Burden” challenges that they face:
Gender inequality in productive activities: There exists substantial bias against women in labour market, ownership of assets and accessibility to formal credit markets. Less than 20% women around the world legally own land. Since male family members generally owns land on papers, banks often deny loans to women.
High opportunity cost of unpaid care work: Female-headed households mostly have higher dependency ratio. Consequently, it impedes their participation capabilities in paid jobs. About 40% women dropped out from labour force participation due to their unpaid care responsibilities (ILO, 2018).
‘Double day burden’: With no other adult help, women heads have to carry out both domestic chores and seek paid jobs. Because of considerable time and mobility constraints, they are likely to work for fewer hours or accept low-paid jobs.
Societal Division of Labour:
Societal norms that influence division of labour within or outside households, determine who are more vulnerable and exposed to climate shocks.
For instance, based on India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia, Oxfam International (2005) found that female mortality was disproportionately higher during the tsunami (2004). While absence of early warning systems in Indian ocean and lack of adequate preparedness were directly responsible for rampant devastation and overwhelming death rates, social division of labour explains higher death rates among women. In rural coastal areas such as southern India, it is customary among women from fishing communities to wait at shores for receiving the catch from their men. Because tsunami waves were relatively calm while passing over water, fishermen away on boats were safe and unaware of the catastrophe. But women who were waiting at shores instantly became preys to tsunami waves as these ravaged the shores. And those women who were not at shores, were staying at home while doing their domestic duties such as taking care of children and cooking. So, when the tsunami hit, most women lost crucial seconds to gather children around them in an attempt to protect them. However, most men were usually away from seafront; either engaged in agrarian fields, or taking their produce away to markets.
Marriage Transactions
Extreme weather events such as cyclones, flood wash away several houses and lands. The consequent economic crises of households in affected areas induce them to seek means of reducing their expenses. In patriarchal societies of South Asian and sub-Saharan countries, women are largely viewed as burden by their natural families since except for initial years, their contribution from paid activities or unpaid domestic work are availed by their in-laws’. In many South Asian countries, marriage prospects require bride’s families to make dowry payments, that is, “gifting” money and expensive commodities to groom’s families (Malhotra and Elnakib, UNFPA (2021)). Though dowry system is declared illegal or restricted in value by law in most of these countries (e.g., Indian Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act, 1986; Pakistan’s Dowry & Bridal Gifts (Restriction) Act, 1967), such transactions are still viewed as intrinsic customs of marriage. According to traditional beliefs, marrying off young girls is looked upon as protecting girls from “sin by having sexual relations outside marriages”; cost of dowry is relatively less for younger (hence lesser educated) girls. In sub-Saharan countries, bride prices are predominant: A marriage is decided once a man and his family negotiates and make payments in cash or kind to a woman’s family (Malhotra and Elnakib, UNFPA (2021)). Thus, it is not surprising that minimising household expenses by marrying off under-aged daughters is a common strategy to cope with extreme weather events induced damages in climate hotspots.
Why need Feminist Climate Renaissance
Though women disproportionately bear the brunt of climate shock, it is women who have better understanding for arriving at sustainable climate solutions, owing to their nature of activities. At least 3/5th of female labour force belongs to agrarian sector in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Because of changing climate, traditional food sources are gradually becoming more unpredictable and women are facing loss of harvests and income. If women had equivalent productive resources as that of men, they could raise aggregate agricultural output by 2.5-4% in developing countries. Besides, had men and women given a level playing field in labour markets, it could contribute USD 28 trillion to annual world GDP by 2025 (McKinsey, 2015) which is estimated as 30 % more than required to meet the deficit in climate finance by 2030. However, estimates suggest that women still earn, on an average, 23 % less than that of men; and it may take more than 100 years to close gender pay gap . Moreover, women still account for 2/3rd of the global illiteracy.
Though studies have highlighted that women ministers prioritise green investments and policy-making more than their male counterparts, more than 50 % countries in the world never had a female leader. Real world evidences suggest that women as climate agents can be a major driving force towards climate mitigation and better adaptation. Nemonte Nenquimo from Ecuadorian Waorani Tribe, Clemencia Herrera Nemerayema from Colombian Amazon are some examples of indigenous women setting remarkable milestones as protectors of land. Women led entrepreneurship such as Solar sister, Modularity Grid are gradually replacing carbon emitting fuels with cleaner renewable fuels such as solar, wind. Such green energy solutions positively impact women’s health as they are usually in charge of cooking and gathering fuels. Yet, only 37 % women around the world own small and medium scale enterprises; and, these businesses run deficit in financial needs of more than USD 250 million. Thus, unleashing women’s unique knowledge and capabilities to enhance their participation in Climate Action Gender Plans across various sectors for achieving sustainable and fair climate policies.
Jheelum Sarkar is an M.Phil. Research Scholar at the Centre for International Trade and Development (CITD), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi. Her research interests span Economics of Climate Change, Feminist Economics, and Social Economics. She tweets at @JheelumS. You can also reach here on jheelum123@gmail.com.